نشریه علمی فرآیند نو

نشریه علمی فرآیند نو

مروری بر کارایی و رویکردهای نوین روش زمین‌کِشت در پالایش خاک‌های آلوده به ترکیبات نفتی

نوع مقاله : مروری

نویسندگان
1 گروه علوم خاک، دانشکده کشاورزی، دانشگاه شیراز، ایران
2 بخش تحقیقات خاک و آب، مرکز تحقیقات و آموزش کشاورزی و منابع طبیعی صفی‌آباد، سازمان تحقیقات، آموزش و ترویج کشاورزی (AREEO)، دزفول، ایران.
3 کارشناس بخش تحقیقات خاک‌و آب، مرکز تحقیقات و آموزش کشاورزی و منابع طبیعی صفی آباد، سازمان تحقیقات، آموزش و ترویج کشاورزی، دزفول، ایران
10.22034/farayandno.2026.2090407.2053
چکیده
آلودگی خاک به ترکیبات نفتی یکی از چالش‌های مهم زیست‌محیطی است. زمین‌کِشت به دلیل سادگی، هزینه پایین و قابلیت اجرا در مقیاس وسیع، یکی از روش‌های متداول پالایش زیستی خاک‌های آلوده به هیدروکربن‌های نفتی است. این مطالعه با هدف بررسی مکانیسم‌های مؤثر بر زمین‌کِشت، عوامل کنترل‌کننده کارایی و راهکارهای نوین بهبود آن انجام شد. بررسی مطالعات نشان داد که عملکرد زمین‌کِشت عمدتاً تحت تأثیر سه فرآیند انتقال آلاینده، فراهمی زیستی و تجزیه زیستی قرار دارد. بر این اساس، در این مطالعه یک چارچوب جدید برای دسته‌بندی راهکارهای بهبود زمین‌کِشت پیشنهاد شد که این راهکارها را بر اساس گلوگاه اصلی فرآیند در سه گروه شامل تقویت ظرفیت زیستی، افزایش فراهمی زیستی و بهبود انتقال آلاینده و پیش‌تیمار و کاهش مقاومت آلاینده طبقه‌بندی می‌کند. این چارچوب می‌تواند مبنایی برای انتخاب هدفمند روش‌های تلفیقی و افزایش کارایی زمین‌کِشت متناسب با ویژگی‌های خاک و نوع آلاینده باشد.
کلیدواژه‌ها
موضوعات

عنوان مقاله English

A Review of the Efficiency and Novel Approaches of Landfarming for the Remediating of Soils Contaminated with Petroleum Hydrocarbons

نویسندگان English

Hashem Aram 1
Aliakbar Zare 2
Ruhollah Rezaei Arshad 3
1 Department of Soil Science,, School of Agriculture, Shiraz University, Iran
2 AREEO
3 AREEO
چکیده English

Soil contamination with petroleum compounds is a major environmental challenge. Landfarming, owing to its simplicity, low cost, and feasibility at large scales, is one of the commonly used bioremediation methods for soils contaminated with petroleum hydrocarbons. This study aimed to review the mechanisms governing landfarming, the factors controlling its efficiency, and innovative strategies for its improvement. The review of previous studies indicated that landfarming performance is primarily governed by three processes: pollutant transport, bioavailability, and biodegradation. Accordingly, this study proposes a novel framework for classifying landfarming enhancement strategies based on the principal process bottleneck. The proposed framework categorizes these strategies into three groups: enhancement of biological capacity; improvement of pollutant bioavailability and transport; and pretreatment and reduction of pollutant resistance. This framework can provide a basis for the targeted selection of integrated approaches and improve landfarming efficiency according to soil characteristics and pollutant type.

کلیدواژه‌ها English

Landfarming
Petroleum Compounds
Bioavailability
Soil
Pollution
[1] Falih, K. T., Mohd Razali, S. F., Abdul Maulud, K. N., Abd Rahman, N., Abba, S. I., & Yaseen, Z. M. Assessment of petroleum contamination in soil, water, and atmosphere: A comprehensive review. International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, 21(13), pp. 8803-8832, 2024.
[2] Majeed, B. K., et al. A review on environmental contamination of petroleum hydrocarbons, its effects and remediation approaches. Environmental Science: Processes & Impacts, 27(3), pp. 526-548, 2025.
[3] Akbar, N. I., Ahmadi, R., Bhawani, S. A., Namakka, M., & Ramli, N. H. Impacts of oil spill on geotechnical properties of soil. In Biobased Materials and Their Composites for Oil Spill Treatment (pp. 39-52), 2025. Springer Nature.
[4] Toto-Goxcon, I., et al. Effect of a permanent oil spillage on agricultural soil in Tihuatlán, Veracruz, Mexico. Revista Internacional de Contaminación Ambiental, 41, 55274, 2025.
[5] Ossai, I. C., Ahmed, A., Hassan, A., & Hamid, F. S. Recent Advances in Soil Cleanup Technologies for Oil Spills: A Systematic Review. Water, Air, & Soil Pollution, 234, 503, 2023.
[6] Ambaye, T. G., & Vaccari, M. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) contaminants in agricultural soils: Occurrence and remediation. Burleigh Dodds Science Publishing, 2025.
[7] Shu, A., Yang, Z., Cui, Q., Liu, Z., Liu, S., Zhang, M., Sun, H., & Jiaqi, S. Spatial variations and vertical migration potentials of petroleum hydrocarbons with varying chain lengths in soils of different depths. Science of The Total Environment, 954, 176589, 2025.
[8] Suman, S., et al. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons: Sources, toxicity, and remediation approaches. Frontiers in Microbiology, 11, 562813, 2020.
[9] García-Rincón, J., Gatsios, E., Lenhard, R. J., Atekwana, E. A., & Naidu, R. (Eds.). Advances in the characterisation and remediation of sites contaminated with petroleum hydrocarbons, 2024. Springer.
[10] Nazari, S., et al. Impact of Oil Contamination and Physical Weathering on Water Repellency and Hydraulic Properties of Sandy Loam and Clay Loam Soils. Journal of Water and Soil, University of Tabrizm, 2024.
[11] Yang, H., Shi, J., Li, Z., & Hu, F. Influence of Petroleum Hydrocarbon Pollution on Soil Water Holding Characteristics and Soil Water Availability. Research of Soil and Water Conservation, 29(3), 2022.
[12] Ren, L., Zhang, J., Geng, B., Zhao, J., Jia, W., & Cheng, L. Ecological Shifts and Functional Adaptations of Soil Microbial Communities Under Petroleum Hydrocarbon Contamination. Water, 17(8), 1216, 2025.
[13] Kolesnikov, S. A., et al. Enzyme Activity of Oil-Contaminated Chernozem and Soddy-Podzolic Soil. Eurasian Soil Science, 58(4), 47, 2025.
[14] Yang, K. M. Recent trend in phytoremediation of petroleum hydrocarbon contaminated soil: a bibliometric review. International Journal of Phytoremediation, 2025.
[15] Kuppusamy, S., Thavamani, P., Venkateswarlu, K., Lee, Y. B., Naidu, R., & Megharaj, M. Remediation approaches for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) contaminated soils. Chemosphere, 168, pp. 944-968, 2017.
[16] Maila, M. P., & Cloete, T. E. Bioremediation of petroleum hydrocarbons through land farming: A review. Bioremediation Journal, 8(3-4), pp. 101-113, 2004.
[17] Lin, T. C., Pan, P. T., Young, C. C., Chang, J. S., Chang, T. C., & Cheng, S. S. Evaluation of the optimal strategy for ex situ bioremediation of diesel oil-contaminated soil. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 18(9), pp. 1487-1496, 2011.
[18] University of Hawaii. Land farming for remediation of petroleum contaminated soils (Technical Report No. 04-01). Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Management, 2004.
[19] Sayqal, A., & Ahmed, O. B. Advances in bioremediation of petroleum hydrocarbons: A review. Journal of Environmental Science and Health, Part A, 56(14), pp.1477-1490, 2021.
[20] Sanscartier, D., Laing, T., Reimer, K., & Zeeb, B. Bioremediation of weathered petroleum hydrocarbon soil contamination in the Canadian North: A field study. Polar Research, 34(1), 24492, 2016.
[21] Jalali, M. Landfarming: Principles and applications. In Soil Remediation Series. Tehran University Press, 2022.
[22] Kwon, I., Lee, H., Kim, J. H., & Park, J. W. Identification of Optimal Operation Factors for Landfarming using Response Surface Methodology. Journal of Soil and Groundwater Environment, 21(1), pp. 94-103, 2016.
[23] Park, J. W., Lee, K. B., & Kim, Y. K. Volatilization of petroleum hydrocarbons from contaminated soil during landfarming. Journal of Environmental Science and Health Part A, 39(8), pp. 2125-2136, 2004.
[24] Maila, M. P., & Cloete, T. E. Bioremediation of petroleum hydrocarbons through landfarming: Are simplicity and cost-effectiveness the only advantages? Reviews in Environmental Science and Biotechnology, 3, pp. 349-360, 2004.
[25] Das, N., & Chandran, P. Microbial degradation of petroleum hydrocarbon contaminants: An overview. Biotechnology Research International, 2011, pp. 1-13, 2011.
[26] Bogatyrenko, E. A., Kim, A. V., Dashkov, D. V., & Ammosova, D. A. A review of the taxonomic diversity and enzyme systems of hydrocarbon-oxidizing bacteria in the marine environment. Russian Journal of Marine Biology, 51(1), pp. 1-15, 2025.
[27] Meyer, D., et al. Oily sludge stimulates microbial activity and changes microbial structure in a landfarming soil. International Biodeterioration & Biodegradation, 115, pp. 296-304, 2016.
[28] Haritash, A. K., & Kaushik, C. P. Biodegradation aspects of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs): A review. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 169(1-3), pp. 1-15, 2009.
[29] Volkering, F., Breure, A. M., & Rulkens, W. H. Microbiological aspects of surfactant use for biological soil remediation. Biodegradation, 8(6), pp. 401-417, 1998.
[30] Effendi, A. J., Ramadan, B. S., & Helmy, Q. Enhanced remediation of hydrocarbons contaminated soil using electrokinetic soil flushing – Landfarming processes. Bioresource Technology Reports, 17, 100959, 2022.
[31] Bang, S., Kim, M., Chun, M., Kim, J., & Ahn, H. A Study on the Quality Management Method for Landfarming Technique Applied to Petroleum Contaminated Soil. Journal of Soil and Groundwater Environment, 29(6), pp. 22-34, 2024.
[32] Covino, S., Fabiani, A., & Cipriani, G. Optimization of Landfarming Amendments Based on Soil Texture and Crude Oil Concentration. Water, Air, & Soil Pollution, 229, Article 234, 2018.
[33] Philipp, L., Sünnemann, M., Schädler, M., Blagodatskaya, E., Tarkka, M., Eisenhauer, N., & Reitz, T. Soil depth shapes the microbial response to land use and climate change in agroecosystems. Applied Soil Ecology, 208, 106025, 2025.
[34] Chen, C.-H., Liu, P.-W. G., & Whang, L.-M. Effects of natural organic matters on bioavailability of petroleum hydrocarbons in soil-water environments. Chemosphere, 233, pp. 843-851, 2019.
[35] Kim, S. H., Woo, H., An, S., Chung, J., Lee, S., & Lee, S. What determines the efficacy of landfarming for petroleum-contaminated soils: Significance of contaminant characteristics. Chemosphere, 290, 133392, 2022.
[36] Lukic, B., Huguenot, D., Panico, A., van Hullebusch, E. D., & Esposito, G. Influence of activated sewage sludge amendment on PAH removal efficiency from a naturally contaminated soil: application of the landfarming treatment. Journal of Chemical Technology & Biotechnology, 2017.
[37] Margesin, R., & Schinner, F. Biodegradation and bioremediation of hydrocarbons in extreme environments. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology, 56(5-6), pp. 650-663, 2001.
[38] Zhang, Y., et al. Temperature effects on hydrocarbon biodegradation: A meta-analysis. Environmental Pollution, 342, 123045, 2024.
[39] Marín, J. A., Hernández, T., & García, C. Bioremediation of oil refinery sludge by landfarming in semiarid conditions: Influence on soil microbial activity. Environmental Research, 98(2), pp. 185-195, 2005.
[40] Lee, S., et al. Moisture effects on hydrocarbon biodegradation in soil. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 318, pp. 234-242, 2016.
[41] Pancrazi, M., et al. Bioremediation of diesel contamination at an underground storage tank site. World Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology, 32(8), 132, 2016.
[42] Aislabie, J., Saul, D. J., & Foght, J. M. Bioremediation of hydrocarbon-contaminated polar soils. Extremophiles, 10(3), pp. 171-179, 2006.
[43] Molina-Barahona, L., Rodríguez-Vázquez, R., Hernández-Velázquez, M., Vega-Jarquín, C., Zapata-Pérez, O., Mendoza-Cantú, A., & Albores, A. Enzyme activities as indicators of the stabilization of petroleum hydrocarbons in soil during landfarming. International Biodeterioration & Biodegradation, 54(2-3), pp. 143-150, 2004.
[44] Margesin, R., Zimmerbauer, A., & Schinner, F. Monitoring of bioremediation by soil biological activities. Chemosphere, 40(4), pp. 339-346, 2000.
[45] Oghoje, S. U., Ejeomo, C., Arienmughare, E., Ifijen, I. H., Afure, M. A., Emoyan, O. O., Ukpebor, J. E., Ukpebor, E. E., & Agbaire, P. O. The effective application rates and efficiency of organic stimulation for optimal landfarming of heavily petroleum hydrocarbon-polluted soils. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 197(12), 1300, 2025.
[46] Ambaye, T. G., Chebbi, A., Formicola, F., Rosatelli, A., Prasad, S., Gomez, F. H., Sbaffoni, S., Franzetti, A., & Vaccari, M. Ex-situ bioremediation of petroleum hydrocarbon contaminated soil using mixed stimulants. ENEA-IRIS, 2022.
[47] Dike, C. C., et al. Comparative summary of biostimulant materials, treatment conditions, and TPH removal efficiencies in contaminated soils. PMC, 2024.
[48] Sayara, T., Borràs, E., Caminal, G., Sarrà, M., & Sánchez, A. Bioremediation of PAHs-contaminated soil through composting: Influence of bioaugmentation and biostimulation. International Biodeterioration & Biodegradation, 65(6), pp. 859-865, 2011.
[49] Jiang, X., et al. Strategy of nitrate-enhanced natural attenuation for remediation of PAHs-contaminated subsoil. Journal of Environmental Management, 373, 123587, 2025.
[50] Adams, G. O., Fufeyin, P. T., Okoro, S. E., & Ehinomen, I. Bioremediation, biostimulation and bioaugmentation: A review. International Journal of Environmental Bioremediation & Biodegradation, 3(1), pp. 28-39, 2015.
[51] Tyagi, M., da Fonseca, M. M. R., & de Carvalho, C. C. Bioaugmentation and biostimulation strategies to improve the effectiveness of bioremediation processes. Biodegradation, 22(2), pp. 231-241, 2011.
[52] Wang, G., Zhang, K., Yu, M., Xia, Y., Tian, J., Yang, X., Xie, W., & Li, H. Genetically engineered microbes: A novel bidirectional regulator for biofilm in combatting aquatic nitrogen pollution. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 488, 137898, 2025.
[53] Russo, L., Rizzo, L., & Belgiorno, V. Ozone oxidation and aerobic biodegradation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in contaminated soil. Chemosphere, 87(4), pp. 376-381, 2012.
[54] Kulik, N., Goi, A., Trapido, M., & Tuhkanen, T. Degradation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons by combined chemical pre-oxidation and bioremediation in creosote contaminated soil. Journal of Environmental Management, 78(4), pp. 382-391, 2006.
[55] Javed, F., & Hashmi, I. Vermiremediation – Remediation of Soil Contaminated with Oil Using Earthworm (Eisenia fetida). Soil & Sediment Contamination, 30(6), pp. 639-662, 2021.
[56] Gomez-Eyles, J. L., Sizmur, T., Collins, C. D., & Hodson, M. E. Effects of biochar and the earthworm Eisenia fetida on the bioavailability of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Environmental Pollution, 159(2), pp. 616-622, 2011.
[57] Contreras-Ramos, S. M., Álvarez-Bernal, D., & Dendooven, L. Eisenia fetida increased removal of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons from soil. Environmental Pollution, 143(3), pp. 396-403, 2006.
[58] Gill, R. T., Harbottle, M. J., Smith, J. W. N., & Thornton, S. F. (2014). Electrokinetic-enhanced bioremediation of organic contaminants: A review. Chemosphere, 107, pp. 31-39, 2014.
[59] Cameselle, C., & Gouveia, S. Electrokinetic remediation for the removal of organic contaminants in soils. Current Opinion in Electrochemistry, 11, pp. 41-47, 2018.
[60] Barati Fardin, A., Jamshidi-Zanjani, A., & Darban, A. K. A comprehensive review of soil remediation contaminated by persistent organic pollutants using electrokinetic. Journal of Environmental Management, 373, 123587, 2025.
[61] Keshyagol, K., Prabhu, U. S., Hiremath, P., Gurumurthy, B. M., Shivaprakash, Y. M., Deepak, G. D., & Kowshik, S. Advances in Sustainable Soil Health Restoration through Chemical Biological Physical Integrated and Nano Remediation Techniques. Journal of Sustainability Research, 7(3), e250056, 2025.
[62] Mikkonen, A., et al. Changes in hydrocarbon groups, soil ecotoxicity and microbiology along contamination gradients in an old landfarming field. Environmental Pollution, 162, pp. 374-380, 2012.
[63] Silva, I. S., et al. Bioremediation of a tropical clay soil contaminated with diesel oil. Journal of Environmental Management, 113, pp. 510-516, 2012.
[64] Moreira, I. S., et al. Bioremediation of a clay soil contaminated with diesel oil. Journal of Soils and Sediments, 13, pp. 1234-1243, 2013.
[65] Adams, R. H., & Guzmán-Osorio, F. J. (2008). Evaluation of land farming and chemico-biological stabilization for treatment of heavily contaminated sediments in a tropical environment. International Journal of Environmental Science & Technology, 5 (2), 169-178.
[66] Asquith, E. A., Geary, P., Nolan, A. L., & Evans, C. Comparative bioremediation of petroleum hydrocarbon-contaminated soil by biostimulation, bioaugmentation and surfactant addition. University of Newcastle, 2025.
[67] Martínez-Rabelo, F., Gómez-Guzmán, L. A., García-Segura, D. R., Villegas-García, E., Rodriguez-Campos, J., Velázquez-Fernández, J. B., Hernández-Castellanos, B., Barois, I., & Contreras-Ramos, S. M. Hydrocarbon bioremediation in a pilot-scale: A combination of bioaugmentation, phytoremediation, and vermiremediation. Environmental Technology & Innovation, 31, 103210, 2023.
[68] Bhuyan, B., Kotoky, R., & Pandey, P. Impacts of rhizoremediation and biostimulation on soil microbial community, for enhanced degradation of petroleum hydrocarbons in crude oil-contaminated agricultural soils. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 30 (42), 94649–94668, 2023.
[69] Crognale, S., Cocarta, D. M., Streche, C., & D'Annibale, A. Development of laboratory-scale sequential electrokinetic and biological treatment of chronically hydrocarbon-impacted soils. New Biotechnology, 58, pp. 38-44, 2020. 
[70] Silva, D. R., & Vilar, V. J. P. Coupling electrokinetic remediation with phytoremediation for depolluting soil with petroleum and the use of electrochemical technologies for treating the effluent generated. Separation and Purification Technology, 20, pp. 194-200, 2018. 
[71] Lim, M. W., Von Lau, E., & Poh, P. E. A comprehensive guide of remediation technologies for oil contaminated soil Present works and future directions. Marine pollution bulletin, 109(1), pp. 14-45, 2016.
[72] Lv, Y., Bao, J., & Zhu, L. A comprehensive review of recent and perspective technologies and challenges for the remediation of oil-contaminated sites. Energy Reports, 8, pp. 7976-7988, 2022.
[73] Michael-Igolima, U., Abbey, S. J., & Ifelebuegu, A. O. A systematic review on the effectiveness of remediation methods for oil contaminated soils. Environmental Advances, 9, 100319, 2022.
[74] Mekonnen, B. A., Aragaw, T. A., & Genet, M. B. Bioremediation of petroleum hydrocarbon contaminated soil: a review on principles, degradation mechanisms, and advancements. Frontiers in Environmental Science, 12, 1354422, 2024.
[75] Saini, A., Bekele, D. N., Chadalavada, S., Fang, C., & Naidu, R. A review of electrokinetically enhanced bioremediation technologies for PHs. Journal of Environmental Sciences, 88, pp. 31-45, 2020.